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Another recent line of research has focused on emotional intelligence and its relationship to leadership treatment 7 order 150mg oxcarbazepine with amex. This research suggests that leaders who are sensitive to their emotions and to the impact of their emotions on others may be leaders who are more effective medications errors pictures purchase oxcarbazepine 300 mg. On a practical level, the trait approach is concerned with which traits leaders exhibit and who has these traits. Organizations use personality assessment instruments to identify how individuals will fit within their organizations. The trait approach is also used for personal awareness and development because it allows managers to analyze their strengths and weaknesses and to gain a clearer understanding of how they should try to change to enhance their leadership. First, it is intuitively appealing because it fits clearly into the popular idea that leaders are special people who are out front, leading the way in society. Third, by focusing exclusively on the leader, the trait approach provides an in-depth understanding of the leader component in the leadership process. Last, it has provided some benchmarks against which individuals can evaluate their own personal leadership attributes. In analyzing the traits of leaders, the approach has failed to take into account the impact of situations. In addition, the approach has resulted in subjective lists of the most important leadership traits, which are not necessarily grounded in strong, reliable research. Furthermore, the trait approach has not adequately linked the traits of leaders with other outcomes such as group and team performance. A meta-analysis of the relation between personality traits and leadership perceptions: An application of validity generalization procedures. Validation of the five-factor model of personality across instruments and observers. However, in the skills approach we shift our thinking from a focus on personality characteristics, which usually are viewed as innate and largely fixed, to an emphasis on skills and abilities that can be learned and developed. Although personality certainly plays an integral role in leadership, the skills approach suggests that knowledge and abilities are needed for effective leadership. Researchers have studied leadership skills directly or indirectly for a number of years (see Bass, 1990, pp. However, the impetus for research on skills was a classic article published by Robert Katz in the Harvard Business Review in 1955, titled "Skills of an Effective Administrator. This research has resulted in a comprehensive skillbased model of leadership that was advanced by Mumford and his colleagues (Mumford, Zaccaro, Harding, Jacobs, & Fleishman, 2000; Yammarino, 2000). First, we discuss the general ideas set forth by Katz regarding three basic administrative skills: technical, human, and conceptual. Second, we discuss Leadership Skills 44 LeaderShip Theory and pracTice the recent work of Mumford and colleagues that has resulted in a new skillsbased model of organizational leadership. Three-Skill Approach Based on field research in administration and his own firsthand observations of executives in the workplace, Katz (1955, p. Katz argued that these skills are quite different from traits or qualities of leaders. This chapter shows that these leadership skills can be acquired and leaders can be trained to develop them. It includes competencies in a specialized area, analytical ability, and the ability to use appropriate tools and techniques (Katz, 1955). In both these examples, technical skills involve a hands-on activity with a basic product or process within an organization. Technical skills play an essential role in producing the actual products a company is designed to produce. Individuals at the top level depend on skilled followers to handle technical issues of the physical operation. Human skills allow a leader to assist group members in working cooperatively as a group to achieve common goals. Furthermore, they create an atmosphere of trust where employees can feel comfortable and secure and where they can feel encouraged to become involved in the planning of things that will affect them. In short, human skill is the capacity to get along with others as you go about your work.

Second symptoms enlarged prostate discount oxcarbazepine 300mg mastercard, in any situation or context where people are experiencing change treatment yeast infection buy oxcarbazepine 600 mg without prescription, the leader first makes an assessment to determine if the change creates challenges that are technical or adaptive in nature. If the challenges are technical, the leader addresses the problems with his or her authority and expertise or through the rules and procedures of the organization. If the challenges are adaptive, the leader engages in several specific leader behaviors to move the adaptive process forward. While the recipe for adaptive leadership is composed of many leader behaviors and activities, there is no particular order to the prescribed behaviors. Adaptive leadership incorporates many of these behaviors simultaneously, and interdependently, with some of them more important at the beginning of the process and others at the end. Some important adaptive leader behaviors are regulating distress, creating a holding environment, providing direction, keeping people focused on important issues, empowering people, and giving voice to those who feel unrecognized or marginalized. Overall, it is safe to say that adaptive leadership works because leaders are willing to engage in all of these behaviors with the intention of helping followers do adaptive work. Using Adaptive Leadership chapter 11 Adaptive Leadership 275 strenGtHs In its present stage of development, adaptive leadership has multiple strengths. First, in contrast to many other leadership theories, adaptive leadership takes a process approach to the study of leadership. Consistent with the process definition of leadership discussed in Chapter 1, adaptive leadership underscores that leadership is not a trait or characteristic of the leader, but rather a complex interactional event that occurs between leaders and followers in different situations. The process perspective highlights that leaders and followers mutually affect each other, making leadership an interactive activity that is not restricted to only a formal, designated leader. This approach emphasizes that the phenomenon of leadership is a complex interactive process comprising multiple dimensions and activities. The adaptive approach to leadership is other directed, stressing follower involvement and follower growth. This approach encapsulates leadership as those behaviors and actions leaders need to engage in to give followers the greatest opportunity to do adaptive work. Third, adaptive leadership is unique in how it directs attention to the use of leadership to help followers deal with conflicting values that emerge in changing work environments and social contexts. Change and learning are inherent in organizational life, and adaptive leadership focuses specifically on helping followers to confront change and examine the emergence of new values that may accompany change. Another strength of adaptive leadership is that it provides a prescriptive approach to leadership that is useful and practical. In their writings, Heifetz and his colleagues (Heifetz, 1994; Heifetz & Sinder, 1988; Heifetz et al. For example, "get on the balcony," "regulate distress," and "give work back to the people" are all prescriptive behaviors leaders can use to mobilize followers to do the work they need to do to adapt or change. It suggests that followers should learn to adapt and leaders should set up a context where this is most likely to occur. It describes the kind of work that followers should address and then the behaviors leaders should employ to help them accomplish this work. Finally, adaptive leadership makes a unique contribution to the field of leadership studies by identifying the concept of a holding environment as an integral part of the leadership process. Few leadership theories discuss how leaders are responsible for creating a safe environment for followers to address difficult issues. The holding environment can be physical, virtual, or relational, but most importantly, it is an atmosphere where people should feel safe tackling difficult issues. It is a place where leaders get a dialogue started but do not let it become too heated or explosive. Although abstract, the concept of a holding environment can be easily visualized and is useful for anyone wanting to demonstrate adaptive leadership. Originally intended as a practical framework for theory building, adaptive leadership is based on ideas and assumptions, but not on established research. Without evidence-based support for the tenets of the model, the ideas and principles set forth on adaptive leadership should be viewed cautiously. Second, conceptualization of the process of adaptive leadership needs further refinement. Adaptive leadership was designed intentionally as a practical approach to leadership and is composed of a series of prescriptions about what leaders should do to help people engage in adaptive work.

Because they tend to be adaptable and collaborative medicine kim leoni generic oxcarbazepine 300 mg mastercard, processors complement most other leadership styles and thus play an important role in any executive role constellation medicine to stop contractions cheap oxcarbazepine 300 mg with mastercard. The Coach coaches are very good at instituting culture change projects to address organizational alienation and loss of trust. They are exceptional people developers who possess empathy, are extremely good listeners, and have high emotional intelligence. With their positive, constructive outlook on life, they inspire confidence and trust. Great communicators and motivators, coaches are excellent at handling difficult interpersonal and group situations and at giving constructive feedback. Given the organizational context, teaming coaches with executives who possess other archetypes can be highly effective. The Communicator With their ability to express a vision strongly and powerfully, communicators can inspire people at all levels. They are good at projecting optimism in times of adversity or crisis and are strongly influential with the various constituencies in the organization. Possessing impressive theatrical skills and great presence, communicators are very effective in building alliances and enlisting the support of other people. As in the case of coaches, when balanced with other archetypes, communicators can play an essential role in many role constellations. Though the responses certainly reflect longstanding behavioral characteristics, situational factors can have considerable influence. For more information on the development and validation of the Leadership Archetype Questionnaire, please refer to Kets de Vries et al. The psychodynamic approach is the flip side of the coin, and looks at the underlying irrational processes and dynamics governing human behavior. Indeed, much of what we do, whether we want to admit it or not, is guided by deep-seated experiences and patterns that are first mapped out in early infancy, through our experiences with early caregivers. We carry these patterns subconsciously into our adult and working lives, and they color our interactions with those we work with-superiors, peers, and followers alike. Only in understanding ourselves and our drivers, and in turn turning our analytic gaze to deciphering the motivations and behaviors of others around us, can we truly understand the complexity of the system in which we live and work. The psychodynamic approach not only provides us with better self-knowledge, but this knowledge can also be used in our interface with other organizational actors in a way that allows us to shape, influence, and leverage organizational dynamics. Projective identification in the consulting relationship: Exploring the unconscious dimensions of a client system. The systems psychodynamics of organizations: Integrating the group relations, psychoanalytic, and open systems perspectives. Struggling with the demon: Perspectives on individual and organizational irrationality. The leader on the couch: A clinical approach to changing people and organizations. Vision without action is a hallucination: Making strategy implementation a reality. Transformational leadership development programs: Creating long-term sustainable change. The functions of social systems as a defence against anxiety: A report on a study of the nursing service of a general hospital. Human Relations, 13, 95­121; reprinted in Containing anxiety in institutions: Selected essays (Vol. Some social and psychological consequences of the longwall method of coal getting. The need to have enemies and allies: From clinical practice to international relationships. The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science. The chapter is intended not as an "ethical leadership theory," but rather as a guide to some of the ethical issues that arise in leadership situations. Probably since our cave-dwelling days, human beings have been concerned with the ethics of our leaders. Our history books are replete with descriptions of good kings and bad kings, great empires and evil empires, and strong presidents and weak presidents. But despite a wealth of biographical accounts of great leaders and their morals, very little research has been published on the theoretical foundations of leadership ethics.

This chapter will address the genetic analysis of both pregnancy tissue and parental blood symptoms 0f pregnancy purchase oxcarbazepine 600mg. It is possible to ascertain whether an early pregnancy loss is due to a genetically abnormal embryo or fetus (aneuploidy) by analyzing the pregnancy or fetal tissue (Mathur et al symptoms genital herpes buy generic oxcarbazepine 300 mg online. Analysis by conventional karyotyping is limited by the failure of tissue culture and the fact that it does not distinguish between maternal contamination and a normal (euploid) female fetus (Robberecht et al. Several authors have suggested a strategy of karyotyping the pregnancy tissue of the second miscarriage and only proceeding to further maternal investigations (for thrombophilia, thyroid dysfunction, uterine malformations) for the cause of the recurrent pregnancy loss if the result is euploid (Hogge et al. Determining the chromosomal status of pregnancy tissue from women with recurrent pregnancy loss may provide them with a cause or reason for the particular loss being investigated, but it does not necessarily rule out other underlying conditions. No clear effect of genetic testing of the pregnancy tissue on prognosis (subsequent live birth) has been described so far and the role of genetic analysis of pregnancy tissue should be further elaborated within a prognostic model. Recommendation Genetic analysis of pregnancy tissue is not routinely recommended but it could be performed for explanatory purposes. Justification Association Contributing factor Yes Prognosis No Conditional Strong Treatment No Karyotyping of the pregnancy tissue Yes Aneuploidy is a recognized cause of pregnancy loss, and the frequency of aneuploid early pregnancy losses increases with female age. Aneuploidies occur in comparable frequencies in both women with sporadic and recurrent pregnancy loss. Genetic analysis of pregnancy tissue has the benefit of providing the patient with a reason for the pregnancy loss and may help to determine whether further investigations or treatments are required. As the impact of further clinical decision making and the exact influence on prognosis for an individual patient is unclear. In another retrospective study of 795 couples with two or more pregnancy losses, chromosomal abnormalities were found in 3. The subsequent miscarriage rate was higher and the live birth rate was lower in carrier couples, although the cumulative live birth rate was 64%. This study did not mention the number of carrier couples deciding not to attempt to conceive again (Sugiura-Ogasawara et al. The subsequent pregnancy loss has been shown to be dependent on the nature of the parental karyotype abnormality with more pregnancy losses in carriers of reciprocal translocations and inversions as compared to Robertsonian translocations or other types of abnormalities (SugiuraOgasawara et al. For example, in one casecontrol study 85 of 157 (54%) with reciprocal translocations had one or more miscarriages compared with 18 of 37 (49%) with inversions, 13 of 38 (34%) with Robertsonian translocations, and four of 15 (27%) with other types of abnormality (Franssen et al. Ongoing pregnancies with unbalanced translocations were detected in less than 1% in carrier couples seen for prenatal diagnosis in a large retrospective study (Barber et al. Although parental karyotyping could provide relevant information for those couples whose karyotypical abnormality put them at high risk of a subsequent pregnancy loss, the benefit is limited in other couples. In a nested case-control study with 279 carrier couples and 428 controls, it was reported that the probability of carrier status is very low in couples with higher female age (39 years), fewer than 3 pregnancy losses and no indication for an abnormal parental karyotype from the family history, and therefore testing may be of limited value in these couples (Franssen et al. In carrier couples the main reasons to not try to conceive were the risk of having a child with congenital abnormalities and not wanting to have more miscarriages, in noncarrier couples the main reasons were advanced maternal age and fear of further miscarriages (Franssen et al. Justification Association Contributing factor Yes1 Prognosis Yes2 Conditional Treatment No Parental genetic testing 1 Yes For couples with a parental chromosome abnormality, about one third of pregnancy losses are caused by parental chromosome abnormality; the other losses are aneuploidies, unexplained or a contribution of other underlying factor might exist. Parental karyotyping can be recommended based on genetic history (for instance in case of the previous birth of a child with congenital abnormalities, offspring with unbalanced chromosome abnormalities in the family, or detection of a translocation in the pregnancy tissue). For other couples, the benefit of the test is limited as the chances of finding an abnormality are very low: in couples with female age above 39, less than three pregnancy losses and a negative family history, the chance of being a carrier of a translocation is very low (Franssen et al. Parental karyotyping may provide couples with a possible contributing factor and prognostic information for the subsequent pregnancy. Regarding prognosis, couples should be informed that, even if a parental abnormality is found after karyotyping, the cumulative live birth rates are good, as are the chances of a healthy child, despite a higher risk of a subsequent pregnancy loss. Furthermore, they should be informed of the limitations of karyotyping, including that karyotyping does not predict unbalanced translocation in next pregnancy. A decision analysis of selective versus universal recurrent pregnancy loss evaluation. Comparison of reproductive outcome, including the pattern of loss, between couples with chromosomal abnormalities and those with unexplained repeated miscarriages. Cost-effectiveness of cytogenetic evaluation of products of conception in the patient with a second pregnancy loss. Selective chromosome analysis in couples with two or more miscarriages: casecontrol study. Reproductive outcome after chromosome analysis in couples with two or more miscarriages: index [corrected]-control study. Rescue karyotyping: a case series of array-based comparative genomic hybridization evaluation of archival conceptual tissue.

Additional studies assessed neonatal survival following maternal exposures prior to and during gestation medicine yoga order oxcarbazepine 150 mg without a prescription. These abnormalities included cleft palate treatment management system buy oxcarbazepine 300mg without a prescription, sternal defects, anasarca, enlarged right atrium, and ventricular septal defects. These authors assessed the numbers of (per litter) implants, live fetuses, dead fetuses, early resorptions, and late resorptions. Additionally, no 124 effect was observed on the numbers of litters with dead fetuses and post-implantation loss as well as the fetal sex ratio. Additional studies reported no effects on the number of live pups, litter size, and sex ratio following maternal exposures 10 mg/kg/day (Fuentes et al. Most offspring in the 15 mg/kg/day maternal dose group did not survive within 24 hours of birth. These abnormalities included cleft palate, sternal defects, enlarged right atrium, and ventricular septal defects. These authors also observed bilateral swelling in the back of the necks of fetal and neonatal offspring in the 20 mg/kg/day maternal dose group. Increased liver weight and decreased weight gain were observed in dams in the 10 and 20 mg/kg/day groups, respectively. Although limited to the assessment of body weight and general appearance, no maternal toxicity was observed. For many of the studies that reported decreased pup body weight, maternal toxicity. Decreases in rat pup body weight have been reported to persist beyond the neonatal period to weaning. Using the F1 generation males and females for breeding and following a similar exposure regimen, a decrease in pup. In this study decreased placental weight and increased placental necrosis were observed in the 0. It is possible that the placental effects in this study influenced the observed decrease in fetal body weight. In neonates, decreased pup body weight was observed following maternal doses 10 mg/kg/day (Yahia et al. For example, no effect on body weight was observed in offspring at ages 3 weeks (Wan et al. Decreased fetal/neonatal body weight has been reported to occur in multiple species. Post-natal effects on body weight are less consistent with some studies showing post-natal decreases in body weight and other studies showing no post-natal effects. Some studies have reported that decreased offspring body weight can persist to weaning and beyond. Findings for effects on the thyroid gland and hormones as well as on additional endocrine and metabolic endpoints. Decreases in T4 levels have generally been observed in neonatal and post-weaning rats. The relatively limited reported data show no effect on T4 levels in mouse offspring. Findings for histopathology, liver weight, and liver fat content are briefly reviewed below. Rats Histopathology While data are limited, the liver histopathology observed with exposure of adult rats. However, no increase in relative liver weight was observed in this study when rats were only exposed during gestation. Liver weight Following gestational exposure in mice and assessment of effects near term at or close to parturition, Thibodeaux et al. At 8 weeks of age, there were no statistically significant increases in relative liver weight in either sex compared to controls. No increase in relative liver weight was observed in adult offspring (20 weeks of age) following gestational exposure (Ngo et al. Other 131 indicators of hepatic effects, such as increases in hepatic lipid content, suggest an effect from gestational exposure. Findings for immune function, immune organs, specific cell populations, and hypersensitivity are briefly reviewed below. Behavioral effects assessed include changes in learning, locomotion, or reaction to stimulus.

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