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Epithelial tissue covers the internal and external surfaces of organs inside the animal body and the external surface of the body of the organism nail treatment buy generic atomoxetine 10mg line. Animal Reproduction and Development Most animals have diploid body (somatic) cells and a small number of haploid reproductive (gamete) cells produced through meiosis treatment brown recluse spider bite discount 25mg atomoxetine with amex. Some exceptions exist: For example, in bees, wasps, and ants, the male is haploid because it develops from an unfertilized egg. Most animals undergo sexual reproduction, while many also have mechanisms of asexual reproduction. Sexual Reproduction and Embryonic Development Almost all animal species are capable of reproducing sexually; for many, this is the only mode of reproduction possible. This distinguishes animals from fungi, protists, and bacteria, where asexual reproduction is common or exclusive. During sexual reproduction, the male and female gametes of a species combine in a process called fertilization. Typically, the small, motile male sperm travels to the much larger, sessile female egg. Sperm form is diverse and includes cells with flagella or amoeboid cells to facilitate motility. Fertilization may be internal, especially in land animals, or external, as is common in many aquatic species. After fertilization, a developmental sequence ensues as cells divide and differentiate. Many of the events in development are shared in groups of related animal species, and these events are one of the main ways scientists classify high-level groups of animals. During development, animal cells specialize and form tissues, determining their future morphology and physiology. Other animals, such as some insects and amphibians, undergo complete metamorphosis in which individuals enter one or more larval stages. For these animals, the young and the adult have different diets and sometimes habitats. In other species, a process of incomplete metamorphosis occurs in which the young somewhat resemble the adults and go through a series of stages separated by molts (shedding of the skin) until they reach the final adult form. Asexual Reproduction Asexual reproduction, unlike sexual reproduction, produces offspring genetically identical to each other and to the parent. A number of animal species-especially those without backbones, but even some fish, amphibians, and reptiles-are capable of asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction, except for occasional identical twinning, is absent in birds and mammals. The most common forms of asexual reproduction for stationary aquatic animals include budding and fragmentation, in which part of a parent individual can separate and grow into a new individual. In contrast, a form of asexual reproduction found in certain invertebrates and rare vertebrates is called parthenogenesis (or "virgin beginning"), in which unfertilized eggs develop into new offspring. Classification Features of Animals Animals are classified according to morphological and developmental characteristics, such as a body plan. Additional characteristics that contribute to animal classification include the number of tissue layers formed during development, the presence or absence of an internal body cavity, and other features of embryological development. Chordates are more closely related to echinoderms than to rotifers according to the figure. Body Symmetry Animals may be asymmetrical, radial, or bilateral in form (Figure 15. Asymmetrical animals are animals with no pattern or symmetry; an example of an asymmetrical animal is a sponge (Figure 15. The (a) sponge is asymmetrical and has no planes of symmetry, the (b) sea anemone has radial symmetry with multiple planes of symmetry, and the (c) goat has bilateral symmetry with one plane of symmetry. A vertical plane cut from front to back separates the animal into roughly mirror-image right and left sides. Animals with bilateral symmetry also have a "head" and "tail" (anterior versus posterior) and a back and underside (dorsal versus ventral). Layers of Tissues Most animal species undergo a layering of early tissues during embryonic development. The animals that display radial symmetry develop two germ layers, an inner layer (endoderm) and an outer layer (ectoderm).

Shapes symptoms 5th week of pregnancy buy atomoxetine 40mg without a prescription, colors medications used to treat adhd buy discount atomoxetine 18 mg line, and biology must be balanced for a well-maintained and sustainable green space. Art, architecture, and biology blend in a beautifully designed and implemented landscape. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants, the pterophytes, from which modern ferns are derived. The life cycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations. The completion of the life cycle requires water, as the male gametes must swim to the female gametes. The male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swim-propelled by their flagella-to reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia, or "spore vessels," in which mother cells undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. The release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes. The Evolution of Seed Plants In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation, in which the larger and more ecologically significant generation for a species is the diploid plant. At the same time, the trend led to a reduction in the size of the gametophyte, from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. Lower vascular plants, such as club mosses and ferns, are mostly homosporous (produce only one type of spore). In contrast, all seed plants, or spermatophytes, are heterosporous, forming two types of spores: megaspores (female) and microspores (male). Megaspores develop into female gametophytes that produce eggs, and microspores mature into male gametophytes that generate sperm. Because the gametophytes mature within the spores, they are not free-living, as are the gametophytes of other seedless vascular plants. Heterosporous seedless plants are seen as the evolutionary forerunners of seed plants. Seeds and pollen-two adaptations to drought-distinguish seed plants from other (seedless) vascular plants. This was a transitional group of plants that superficially resembled conifers ("cone bearers") because they produced wood from the secondary growth of the vascular tissues; however, they still reproduced like ferns, releasing spores to the environment. The two innovative structures of pollen and seed allowed seed plants to break their dependence on water for reproduction and development of the embryo, and to conquer dry land. The small haploid (1n) cells are encased in a protective coat that prevents desiccation (drying out) and mechanical damage. The seed offers the embryo protection, nourishment and a mechanism to maintain dormancy for tens or even thousands of years, allowing it to survive in a harsh environment and ensuring germination when growth conditions are optimal. With such evolutionary advantages, seed plants have become the most successful and familiar group of plants. Gymnosperms Gymnosperms ("naked seed") are a diverse group of seed plants and are paraphyletic. Gymnosperm characteristics include naked seeds, separate female and male gametes, pollination by wind, and tracheids, which transport water and solutes in the vascular system. Life Cycle of a Conifer Pine trees are conifers and carry both male and female sporophylls on the same plant. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous and produce male microspores and female megaspores. In the male cones, or staminate cones, the microsporocytes give rise to microspores by meiosis. Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell that will divide into two sperm, and a second cell that will become the pollen tube cell. In the spring, pine trees release large amounts of yellow pollen, which is carried by the wind.

The traR gene is induced by particular opines medicine jokes purchase atomoxetine 40 mg free shipping, causing quorum sensing in this bacterium to occur only in the presence of these compounds treatment brown recluse spider bite generic atomoxetine 10mg mastercard. TraR activates genes required for conjugal transfer and vegetative replication of the Ti plasmid. Populations of bacterial cells appear to use a variety of types of chemical signalling to coordinate diverse activities, especially those activities requiring large numbers of bacterial cells. For example, many types of pathogenic bacteria communicate during colonization of plant or animal hosts, and thereby coordinate their attack. It is thought that single cells are more susceptible to host defences than a population of bacteria that coordinately express genes involved in virulence. For example, species of Erwinia that cause soft rot on plants do not produce lytic enzymes in their plant hosts until a threshold population density is reached (Perombelon, 2002; Smadja et al. In biofilm formation, communication between neighbouring cells must occur for the complex structures that are associated with biofilms to form (Parsek and Greenberg, 2005). Swarming motility is another example of behaviour where cell-cell communication is a critical component (Eberl et al. The importance of cell-cell communication in bacteria is also reflected by the fact that these systems have evolved numerous times. Many gram positive bacteria use short peptides as intercellular signalling molecules (Dunny and Leonard, 1997; Lyon and Novick, 2004). When it accumulates to some threshold level, it binds to the LuxR protein, which then forms dimers and activates transcription of target genes that direct bioluminescence (Choi and Greenberg, 1991, 1992a, 1992b; Stevens et al. Vibrio fischeri colonizes the light organs of certain species of squid and fish to high population the Cell-Cell Communication System of Agrobacterium Tumefaciens 595 densities. The term quorum sensing is often used for these systems to reflect the importance of population density for the accumulation of the signal molecules, which must reach some threshold level before a coordinated response occurs (Fuqua et al. However, it should also be pointed out that a diffusion barrier must also be present for the system to work, so that the signal can accumulate in the growing population (Redfield, 2002). LuxR-LuxI type systems have been described in a number of plant pathogens, including Pseudomonas syringae, P. Similar systems have also been identified on the symbiosis plasmids in the related nitrogen-fixing plant symbionts, such as Rhizobium sp. Most studies of this system have focussed on the molecular biology of TraI, TraR, and the other proteins involved in regulating the activity of TraR. Our knowledge of the importance and activity of the TraR-TraI system in pathogenesis and establishment of A. In this review, we will focus on the current state of our knowledge of this system from a molecular perspective. In the last section, we will speculate on the adaptive significance of this system. When this signal accumulates to a threshold level (in the nanomolar range), it binds to its intracellular target the LuxR-type protein TraR (Piper et al. It should be noted that four additional luxR homologs are present in the genome sequence of C58 (Goodner et al. A model of the TraR-TraI system in octopine-type Ti plasmids is presented in Figure 16-1, and discussed in the following sections. A composite gene map and sequence is available for the octopine-type plasmids R10, A6, B6, Ach5, and 15966, and for the nopaline-type pTiC58 from the genome sequence of strain C58 (Zhu et al. On both types of plasmids, expression of the traR gene is positively regulated by the presence of specific opines: octopine for octopine-type and agrocinopines A and B for nopaline-type Ti plasmids (Genetello et al. On octopine-type Ti plasmids, traR is the last gene of the occ operon, which is divergently transcribed from occR (Fuqua and Winans, 1996b). In the presence of octopine, OccR activates expression of the occ operon, which directs octopine uptake and utilization (Figure 16-1). On nopaline-type Ti plasmids, traR is the fourth gene in the five gene arc operon, which is not related to the occ operon described above (Beck von Bodman et al. The arc operon, required for agrocinopine A and B utilization, is divergently transcribed from the acc operon, the first gene of which is accR. In the presence of agrocinopine A or B, repression of both the arc and acc promoters by AccR is relieved, resulting in gene expression (Beck von Bodman et al.

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Regardless of when the Anthropocene started medications of the same type are known as purchase 18mg atomoxetine mastercard, the major event that marks the boundary is the warming temperatures and mass extinction of nonhuman species caused by human activity (Figure 7 medicine xalatan purchase atomoxetine 25 mg free shipping. Researchers now declare that "human activity now rivals geologic forces in influencing the trajectory of the Earth System" (Steffen et al. Geologic Processes Through the study of fossils, anthropologists are able to learn a great deal about the history of Earth. If you were to closely examine the map of the world, you might notice that the seven continents seem to have outlines that could fit together if rotated and adjusted like puzzle pieces (Figure 7. Moreover, the geologic features of those puzzle pieces fit together and reveal many similarities. Understanding the Fossil Context 237 the shapes of the continents are easier to see from above and when looking at a map. From this perspective, it is not a far reach of the imagination to see how the shapes could fit together. However, in 1596, long before the advent of flight or space travel that would give such a perspective to a person studying geography, Abraham Ortelius theorized about the way the continents were shaped. Approximately 200 million years ago (mya), Pangea started to slowly break apart, with the resulting pieces of land shifting and moving through the process of continental drift. In the late Triassic (roughly 135 mya), Pangea broke into two supercontinents called Laurasia and Gondwanaland, with additional movement that changed the physical representation of the landmasses and resulted in our current land configuration of seven continents. It is important to remember that continental drift continues to this day and will continue for the life of our planet. In another 250 million years, the map of Earth will look significantly different than it does today. Yet the problem was that there was no scientific way to explain how continental drift occurred. Remember, too, that up until the late 1700s, the concept of Deep Time did not exist. In the absence of these vital pieces of information, it was impossible to explain what force would have been strong enough or how there was enough time in the history of the world to allow for the movement of huge masses of land to the various corners of the planet. With this evidence (and much more), Wegener was able to develop his Tectonic Plate Theory. This theory not only supports the breakup of Pangea but also provides the basis for our current understanding of how earthquakes work. Physicists monitor the movement of tectonic plates for earthquake activity along known fault lines such as the San Andreas in California (Figure 7. At the Gray Fossil Site in Gray, Tennessee, for instance, fossilized remains of the red panda (Pristinailurus bristoli) dating back four million years to the late Miocene era have been discovered (Figure 7. Red pandas are considered a "living fossil" because they have changed so little in millions of years and because they are represented in the fossil record. Thus, the existence of the red panda in the Miocene in the Appalachian Mountains but only in Asia today is clear evidence that the red panda moved freely and that our continents were part of a supercontinent (Wallace and Wang 2004, 556). To obtain as much information as possible from the remains of once-living creatures, one must understand the processes that occur after death. Taphonomy can be defined as the study of what happens to an organism after death (Komar and Buikstra 2008, 189; Stodder 2008). Taphonomy is extremely important in biological anthropology, especially in subdisciplines like bioarchaeology (study of human remains in the archaeological record) and zooarchaeology (the study of faunal remains from archaeological sites). It is so important that many scientists have recreated a variety of burial and decay experiments to track taphonomic change in modern contexts. An example of taphonomic study in action comes from Iron Age England (circa 750 B. Since there is no universal or "normative" burial rite, taphonomic study is crucial to figuring out what cultural and ritual processes were operating at this time. Suddern Farm, an Iron Age site in Hampshire, England, includes a cemetery as well as isolated burials outside the cemetery and burials in ritual pits accompanied by the remains of feasting (King 2014, 187). One of these pit burials, identified as P78, presents an interesting taphonomic case. His remains showed multiple sharp-force and penetrating wounds acquired around the time of his death.

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References:

• https://shareok.org/bitstream/handle/11244/33514/Thesis-1998D-E34t.pdf
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